Polyurethane Foam: What is Inside Our Furniture?

How do you choose furniture?  Before becoming a full-time consumer product safety consultant, I had three main criteria: comfort, price, and looks.  Now I have added another criterion to this list – safety, and it comes first.  If we stop to think about the materials from which furniture is made, we will discover that they can affect our health.  Indeed, furniture surrounds us everywhere: we work, eat, and sleep on it, and, thus, inhale and ingest whatever comes out of it.  One of the common materials in conventional furniture and mattresses is polyurethane foam.  Let us find out if polyurethane in furniture is safe or toxic for human health.  Also, read on to see my suggestions about how to protect your health.

Is Polyurethane Foam In Furniture And Mattresses Harmful?

It was during my pregnancy in 2012 that I faced the issue of consumer goods safety, particularly baby products.  Before that, I had just assumed that if a product reached the store shelf, it was safe.  I hoped that “laws and regulations” (about which I knew nothing) controlled manufacturers and protected consumers.  That attitude changed when I saw potentially harmful chemicals among the ingredients of a baby shampoo whose manufacturer promoted it as “natural.” 

After investigating other baby products and finding many that met my strict criteria, I wanted to share my findings.  Thus, the I Read Labels For You blog was born. There you can find my opinions on the safety or toxicity of products we use every day, and their ingredients.  

Nowadays, online retail companies use my consulting services, and this non-toxic makeup brand values my advice on their product ingredients.  Further, furniture manufacturers feel compelled to report to me about their compliance with the updated California flammability regulation (TB 117-2013).  In other words, they want to say that their furniture is now free of any flame retardant chemicals.  However, most of these same manufacturers continue using polyurethane in furniture. 

What Is Polyurethane Foam? 

While free of toxic flame retardants, upholstered furniture still utilizes toxic materials.  Most of the furniture sold to US consumers is made with polyurethane foam (aka “polyfoam” or “PU foam”).  This is what you need to know about this material.

To begin, polyfoam is a combination of a polyol, a type of alcohol, and a diisocyanate, a derivative of petroleum.  The major concern lies with diisocyanate, namely toluene diisocyanate (TDI). The US National Toxicology Program classified it as “reasonably to be anticipated as a human carcinogen” (source).  Some evidence suggests that they add more TDI than it is necessary to make PU foam (1).  This means that the upholstery padding in your home may emit some amounts of carcinogenic TDI.  Actually, workers who make polyfoam must wear full-body protective gear and respirators. 

Further, there are two types of polyurethane foam: rigid polyurethane foam (RPUF) and flexible polyurethane foam (FPUF). A higher ratio of isocyanate to polyol results in rigid foam, while a more balanced ratio makes flexible foam.

With a closed cell structure, the RPUF is generally denser than open cell FPUF. The high strength to weight ratios of RPUF makes it perfect for structural panels, thermal insulation, and lightweight yet sturdy packaging solutions. Conversely, the FPUF applications require comfort, softness, support, and flexibility, like in pads and mattresses.

In case you were wondering, due to its viscoelastic properties, memory foam is considered flexible closed cell polyurethane foam. Read my Tempur-Pedic Mattress Review to see if memory foam is a good choice. 

Is Polyurethane Foam Toxic?

Generally speaking, the toxicity of polyurethane foam depends on the materials used to make it. As we discussed above, polyurethane foam is made from polyol and diisocyanate, namely toluene diisocyanate (TDI), classified as “reasonably to be anticipated as a human carcinogen” (source).   

Additionally, PU foam can contain harmful chemicals that may pose health risks. The latter include volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and flame retardants (FR). Off-gassing of both VOCs and FRs causes emissions that may contribute to a variety of short-term or long-term problems, ranging from headaches and allergies to even cancer.

Also, polyurethane foam causes some environmental concerns because it’s not compostable. Plus, the chemicals used to make it are a major source of hazardous air pollution.

VOCs In Polyurethane Foam

To start with, researchers from the National Research Foundation of Korea tested five different types of furniture.  They found that the items with polyfoam exhibited much higher VOCs levels than the other items they tested (source). 

Along with polyurethane in furniture, manufacturers use PU foam in mattresses.  Is this a big deal? 

Well, since you spend on average 8 hours a day on your mattress, I think it is a big deal.  Definitely, you do not want to breathe in VOCs and carcinogenic TDI while you are sleeping. 

Indeed, this 2019 study showed that body heat significantly increases VOCs emissions from mattresses under sleeping conditions.

Next, this 2000 paper describes how the emissions of four different types of crib mattresses affected mice.  They found that mattresses made of polyfoam and covered with vinyl caused the highest lung irritation in mice.  

Additionally, this 2014 study sampled the air around polyurethane crib mattresses.  The results indicated that it had 21 times higher VOCs than the rest of the air in the room.

Moreover, the results of this 2024 investigation showed that household products, such as infant chairs, mattresses, and polyurethane foam spray are potential sources of atmospheric isocyanic acids, namely methyl isocyanate and toluene diisocyanate. The researchers emphasized that minimum margin values of exposure through inhalation indicated a relatively high risk, particularly for children.

Thus, polyurethane foam can emit potentially harmful gases, which can negatively impact not only your health, but also your baby’s.  Here is another reason to consider avoiding polyurethane in furniture and mattresses. By the way, a memory foam mattress typically off-gasses more than a traditional inner-spring mattress, simply because more foam material is present.

Flame Retardants In Products With Polyfoam

For starters, a major potential harm of flame retardants comes from them being endocrine-disrupting chemicals with negative reproductive health effects.  In fact, there is an opinion that after 1950, with the increased production of hormone-altering chemicals which include flame retardants, sperm counts and fertility began their decline.

Additionally, flame retardants may cause reduced IQ, infertility, thyroid disruption, oxidative DNA stress, adverse effects on the immune system, and cancer (source).  One of the most common flame retardants is polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE).  Among other things, it may increase the risk of breast cancer and disrupt normal thyroid functions (source). 

Because polyfoam is so flammable, polyurethane mattress manufacturers must add flame retardants to the foam to make their mattresses safe.  Before 2007, the Federal government’s cigarette flammability test required companies to add flame retardant chemicals to the polyurethane foam.  With time, older mattresses shed flame retardants.  Therefore, if you bought your mattress before 2007, it is time to switch to a healthy mattress.  

After 2007, manufacturers started using a flame retardant barrier to pass a more stringent flammability test required by law (source).  However, due to their special design, some memory foam mattresses can’t have a flame-retardant barrier.  Instead, they may contain several pounds of flame retardants just poured into the foam.  One of the common flame-retardant agents is fiberglass which acts as a thermal insulation barrier during fires and can be incorporated into mattress or bedding fibers as well. Learn more in my blog post Fiberglass-Free Mattress.

What Materials Do Companies Use For The Flame Retardant Barrier?

In my decade-long experience as a mattress industry researcher, no conventional mattress company has answered my question as to what materials they use to make their flame-retardant barrier.  Unless a company holds an organic certification, there is no guarantee that they do not use flame retardants chemicals for the barrier.  To clarify, unlike OEKO-Tex, an organic certification, such as GOTS, does not allow mattresses to contain toxic flame retardants.  That is why my top safe mattress recommendation would be the one certified by GOTS.  Read on to learn about my favorite mattress!

The good news is that the use of potentially carcinogenic and thyroid disrupting polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) has been restricted.  As a result, this has led to the increased adoption of alternative flame-retardant chemicals to meet flammability standards. However, identifying the chemicals is challenging because manufacturers do not disclose flame retardant formulations in consumer products. It’s great that there are some studies that can help with that.

Analysis Of 26 Polyurethane Foam Samples

First, this research investigated substitutes for PBDE in polyurethane foam by analyzing foam samples from 26 pieces of furniture purchased in the United States between 2003 and 2009. These samples included foam from couches, chairs, mattress pads, pillows, and one laboratory sound-proofing system. The researchers found tris (1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) in 15 samples, tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) in four samples, brominated chemicals from a flame-retardant mixture called “Firemaster 550” in one sample, and PentaBDE in one sample from a futon likely purchased before 2004. In conclusion, the researchers highlighted the need for further research on potential health risks, particularly for children exposed to these chemicals through dust.

Analysis Of 1,141 Polyurethane Foam Samples

Second, this study analyzed 1,141 polyurethane foam (PUF) samples from various products, received between February 2014 and June 2016. The products included sofas, chairs, mattresses, car seats, and pillows. Among the tested samples, 52% contained flame retardants at concentrations exceeding 1% by weight. The most frequently detected chemical across all the product categories was tris (1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP). However, analysis by purchase date indicated a decline in TDCIPP use in recent years, accompanied by increased use of tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP) and a nonhalogenated aryl phosphate mixture referred to as “TBPP.” Nevertheless, the researchers observed significant reductions in flame retardant applications in furniture and child car seats. In their opinion, this suggests a broader decline in the use of additive flame retardants in PUF, potentially driven by changes to TB-117 and Proposition 65 regulations.

PU Foam As An Environmental Pollutant 

First, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies polyfoam manufacturing facilities as a potential major source of hazardous air pollutants (source).  They include methylene chloride, hydrochloric acid (HCl), 2,4-toluene diisocyanate (TDI), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). These substances can cause cancer and damage the lung, eye, and mucous membranes, as well as the central nervous system. 

Second, polyurethane foam is a major contributor to landfill.  Indeed, once something toxic is out there, it is impossible to get rid of it without bad consequences.  Sadly, PU foam is not biodegradable, which means that it goes into ever-growing landfills.  Even if it gets recycled, it is not ideal, because it will come back to us in other products.

Third, upholstery foam produces deadly gases when it burns.  Ignited polyfoam sofas can reach temperatures over 1400 degrees Fahrenheit within minutes.  Studies show that PU foam releases significantly higher amounts of hydrogen cyanide at a faster rate than cotton, wool, and nylon (source and source).  For your information, in 1995 Aum Shinrikyo terrorists used hydrogen cyanide in their attack on the Tokyo subway system.  Also, the Nazis used hydrogen cyanide in death camps during World War II.

Is CertiPUR-Certified Polyurethane Foam Non-Toxic? 

According to their website, the CertiPUR-US program ensures that flexible polyfoam meets their standards for content, emissions, and durability.  Specifically, the foam that carries a CertiPUR-US certification is allegedly made without ozone depleters, certain flame retardants, heavy metals, formaldehyde, phthalates, and has low VOC emissions.  

Note that on their website, they say that CertiPUR-US certified foams are “made without formaldehyde” and “made without phthalates regulated by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.” I see two problems with this wording.

First, “made without formaldehyde” can mean that manufacturers did not use formaldehyde as an additive during the production process. But that does not mean there is no formaldehyde in the end product, because formaldehyde can be a contaminant.

Second, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission regulates only 8 phthalates (in children’s toys and child care articles). Meanwhile, at least 25 phthalates are used in commercial applications nowadays (source). Bottom line, the claims “made without” do not necessarily mean there isn’t formaldehyde or phthalates in the Certi-PUR certified foam.

Additionally, CertiPUR-US certification is the creation of the Alliance for Flexible Polyurethane Foam.  It associates with the Center for the Polyurethanes Industry, Business and Institutional Furniture Association, American Home Furnishings Alliance, etc. (source).  In other words, it is a polyurethane foam industry-affiliated organization rather than an independent certifying agency.  I believe it means that their standards might not be as strict as those of an uninterested party would be.   

For instance, this 2024 risk assessment-based verification of the CertiPUR limit values for toluene diamine and methylene dianiline in flexible polyurethane foam concluded that sleeping on a mattress that satisfies the CertiPUR limit value does not pose undue risk to consumers. However, all the authors of the study are employed by the producers of either flexible polyurethane foam, the chemicals (TDI and MDI) used in the foam, or the raw materials for the foam.

In sum, I believe it is best to avoid polyurethane in furniture and mattresses.  Here are several suggestions for PU foam free options..

Mattress Options Without Polyurethane Foam

Right away I want to tell you that a healthy mattress is an organic mattress.  Moreover, it should be GOTS-certified organic as an entire piece, not just as components.  Can a mattress really be organic?  Yes, and you can learn how it is possible from my post about the process of certifying an organic mattress.

In a nutshell, an organic certification guarantees that the materials in your mattress, including foam, are the safest available on the market.  Hence, there will be no pesticide residues and chemical-loaded substances in your bed.    

For example, we own a Naturepedic GOTS-certified organic mattress with dual firmness (softer for me and firmer for my husband).  You can learn more about this non-toxic mattress without polyurethane foam from my Best Organic Mattress Review.  (To get a 15% discount code, go here.)

Also, Naturepedic offers non-toxic crib mattresses.  Before purchasing one, please read my posts about the organic crib mattress and  solid wood cribs.  (To get a code for a discount, visit here.)  Further, when our son outgrew his crib, we got him a Naturepedic organic kids mattress, which he loves.  (To get a code for 15% off, go here.)

On top of that, Naturepedic offers an affordable non-toxic mattress Happsy which is GOTS-certified organic, too.  Happsy is affordable because it comes only in medium firmness, and you can purchase it only online.  By the way, you can adjust its firmness with a topper.  Read my review of this affordable non-toxic mattress.  (To get a discount code for Happsy, go here.)

Furniture Options Without Polyurethane Foam

If you are on the lookout for new furniture, you may benefit from my post about soybean foam.  Briefly, you will learn that soybean foam is basically the same as polyurethane foam.  And as crazy as it may sound, if soybean foam has the CertiPUR-US® certification, it just proves that the soybean foam is indeed polyfoam.

So, what are your options for non-toxic upholstered furniture?

First, check out Pure Upholstery founded by Donna Halloran who has decades of experience as a designer of healthy furniture.  Pure Upholstery makes non-toxic couches, chairs, sectionals, ottomans, arm covers, headboards, and custom pieces for different budgets.  They use GOTS-certified organic cotton and wool, OEKO-Tex-certified fabrics, and GOLS-certified latex.  For the frame, they use solid wood with natural flax seed finish, and handcraft their furniture in the USA.  (Find out how to get a discount here.)

Second, browse read our blog post How to Buy Non-Toxic Furniture to get some additional helpful ideas.

If you know of other non-toxic furniture brands, please let us know in the comments!

Conclusion: Is Polyurethane Foam A Good Choice For Furniture And Mattresses?

Polyurethane In Furniture And Mattresses Can Emit VOCs And Flame Retardants That Are Potentially Hazardous For Health. 

To conclude, polyurethane in furniture has potentially harmful effects on human health because it can emit VOCs and carcinogenic substances.  In addition to that, polyurethane foam causes environmental concerns contributing to the ever-growing landfill. 

Further, polyfoam is a common material in conventional mattresses, which is not good, especially for cancer patients.  It would be best to use a healthy organic mattress such as Naturepedic or Happsy.  Additionally, there are options for non-toxic furniture, such as Pure Upholstery.  In the meantime, you can improve your air quality with an air purifier or by opening windows regularly.

You are welcome to visit my shop which has many healthy product options of all kinds, including non-toxic makeup. 

• (1) Boor, B., Spilak, M., Laverge, J., Novoselac, A., & Xu, Y. (2017). Human exposure to indoor air pollutants in sleep microenvironments: A literature review. Building and Environment, 125, 528-555.

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